Iran

By William O. Beeman and John Beierle

Iran, Iranian, Persian

The term "Persian" is used as an adjective--especially pertaining to the arts, and to designate the principal language spoken in Iran. The formal name of the Iranian state is "Jomhuri-ye Islami-ye Iran," the Islamic Republic of Iran.

The terms "Iran" as the designation for the civilization, and "Iranian" are of great antiquity as the name for the inhabitants occupying the large plateau located between the Caspian Sea and the Persian Gulf. Iran is located in southwestern Asia, largely on a high plateau situated between the Caspian Sea to the north and the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman to the south. Its area is 636,300 square miles (1,648,000 square kilometers). Its neighbors are, on the north, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Turkmenistan; on the east, Pakistan and Afghanistan; with Turkey and Iraq on the west. The capital is Tehran (Teheran).

Iran's climate is one of extremes, ranging from subtropical to sub polar, due to the extreme variations in altitude and rainfall throughout the nation. Temperatures can range from as high as 130° F (55° C) in the southwest and along the coast of the Persian Gulf to −40  F (−40 ° C) in the northern reaches of the Zagros mountains. Rainfall likewise varies from less than two inches annually in Baluchistan, near the Pakistani border, to more than 80 inches in the subtropical Caspian region.

Iran's population has not been accurately measured since the Islamic Revolution of 1978-79. Population estimates in the early 2000s range from sixty-one to sixty-five million. More than three-quarters of Iran's habitants are under thirty years of age, and an equal percentage now live in urban areas. This marks a radical shift from fifty years ago when only twenty-five percent lived in cities.

Iran is a multi-ethnic, multi-cultural society as a result of millennia of migration, and conquest. Approximately half of the population speaks Persian and affiliated dialects as their primary language. The principal non-Persian Indo-European speakers include Kurds, Lurs, Baluchis, and Armenians, making up approximately fifteen percent of the population. Ural-Altaic (Turkic) speakers constitute approximately twenty to twenty-five percent of the population.

Modern Persian is part of the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European languages. It is a language of great antiquity. Cuneiform tablets from twenty-five hundred years ago inscribed in Old Persian are seen today in Iranian archeological sites. The language is remarkably stable. Iranians can read 12th Century literature with relative ease.

The majority of Iranian residents whose first language is not Persian are bilingual in Persian and their primary language. Persons whose first language is Persian are usually monolingual.

The arrival of the Aryan peoples--Medes and Persians--on the Iranian plateau in the first millennium B.C. marked the beginning of the Iranian civilization, rising to the heights in the great Achaemenid Empire consolidated by Cyrus the Great in 550 B.C. Under the rulers Darius the Great and Xerxes, the Achaemenid rulers extended their empire from Northern India to Egypt. A subsequent series of conquests all resulted in the conquerers becoming Persianized. The conquerers included: Alexander the Great, who swept through the region and conquered the Achaemenid Empire in 330 B.C.; Arab Muslims, arising from Saudi Arabia in 640 A.D.; successive waves of Turkish peoples starting in the eleventh century. Successive Mongol invasions of the thirteenth century resulted in a period of relative instability culminating in a strong reaction in the early sixteenth century on the part of a resurgent religious movement--the Safavids, whose established this form of Shi'ism as the Iranian state religion. There were subsequent conquests by the Afghans and the Qajar Turks.

During the Qajar period from 1899-1925, Iran came into contact for the first time with European civilization in a serious way. The industrial revolution in the West seriously damaged Iran's economy, and the lack of a modern army with the latest in weaponry and military transport resulted in serious losses of territory and influence to Great Britain and Russia. Iranian rulers responded, in a manner similar to other beleaguered Middle Eastern rulers of the period, by selling "concessions" for agricultural and economic institutions to their European rivals to raise the funds needed for modernization. Much of the money went directly into the pockets of the Qajar rulers, cementing a public image of collaboration between the throne and foreign interests that characterized much of 20th century Iranian political life. A series of public protests against the throne took place at regular intervals from the 1890's to the 1970's. These protests regularly involved religious leaders, and continued throughout the reign of the Pahlavi dynasty (1925-79). These protests culminated in the Islamic Revolution of 1978-79, hereafter to as "the Revolution."

The establishment of the theocratic Islamic Republic of Iran under Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini marked a return to religious domination of Iranian culture. More than 20 years after the Revolution and following Khomeini's death, Iran is once again undergoing change. Its youthful population is demanding liberalization of the strict religious rule of its leaders, and a return to the historic balance of religion and secularism that has characterized the nation for most of its history.

Until recently Iran was primarily a rural culture. Even in the 2000s with rampant urbanization, Iranians value nature and make every attempt to spend time in the open air. Because Iran is largely a desert, however, the ideal open space is a culturally constructed space--a garden. Iranians will try to bring the outdoors inside whenever possible. The wonderfully intricate carpets that every family strives to own are miniature gardens replete with flower and animal designs. The inside or andaruni is the most private, intimate area of any architectural space. It is the place where family members are able to behave in the most unguarded manner. The outside or biruni is by contrast a public space where social niceties must be observed. Every family creates both kinds of spaces, even if living in a single room. An Iranian home is one where any room, with the exception of those used for cooking and bodily functions, can be used for any social purpose--eating, sleeping, entertainment, business or whatever else one can conceive.

The historical Iranian city is constructed around the commercial center--the bazaar. The bazaar is the spine of the city. Eminating from it are all the institutions needed by the urban population. At the top of the bazaar sits the "head" of this body--the great congregational mosque where all citizens gather on Friday for common prayers and perhaps a sermon. The bazaar is divided into sections inhabited by the various trade guilds. The bazaar is punctuated with the "outside brought inside" in the form of pools and running water, and even perhaps a religious school with a small garden. The urban space surrounding the bazaar is likewise punctuated by the "inside brought outside" in the form of enclosed public gardens for private discourse in public. Houses in residential neighborhoods are built with abutting walls, each home having its bit of the outside in the form of an open courtyard with a pool, and a tree and a few flowers or a kitchen garden. The alleyways connecting the homes look bleak and bare, They are only functional conduits between the enclosed, yet open spaces that Iranians find so attractive.

Historically Iran has been an agricultural nation with fairly rich resources both for vegetable crops and animal husbandry. In 1955 more than seventy-five percent of the population was living in rural areas and farming or raising animals. In the mid-2000s more than seventy-five percent of Iranians live in urban areas, and derive their incomes either from manufacture or from the service sector (currently the largest sector of the economy). Attempts to revive small agricultural enterprise have failed.

Iranians have a healthy diet centered on fresh fruits, greens and vegetables. Meat (usually lamb, goat or chicken) is used as a condiment rather than as the centerpiece of a meal. Rice and fresh unleavened or semi-leavened whole-grain bread are staple starches. The primary beverage is black tea. The principal dietary taboo is the Islamic prohibition against pork.

Historically, when most of Iran's population lived in rural areas, urban centers served both as the locus for artisans producing manufactured goods, and as commercial exchange points for agricultural goods. Many towns grew around periodic markets where such exchanges took place.

In the twentieth century, Iran's economy changed radically due to the discovery of oil. By the time of the Revolution the nation received more than eighty percent of its income from oil and oil-related industry. Moves to privatize industry have been slow; eighty percent of all economic activity is under direct government control.

Before the 20th century, aside from agricultural activity, Iran's traditional wealth lay in the manufacture of fine textiles, metalwork, woodworking and ceramics.

As late as the mid-1950's the country was a net exporter of wheat. The largest cash export for many years was carpets. In the mid-2000s Iran is a net importer of food and manufactured goods, a condition that will not change soon. Aside from oil products, the nation exports include carpets, caviar, cotton, fruits, textiles, minerals, motor vehicles, and nuts. A small amount of fresh produce and meat is exported to the states of the Persian Gulf.

In traditional life in Iran there was a clear division of labor between men and women. Men carried out heavy agricultural work such as plowing and harvesting, while women were responsible for the transformation of agricultural products into finished goods. In tribal life, women were responsible for the carding, spinning and weaving of wool to make tents, clothing and carpets; and the transformation of milk into yoghurt, butter, oil and cheese. In settled rural communities women are responsible for these tasks plus the grinding of grain and baking of bread. In rural life, the family is an economic unit. Children play an important role in rural life in child care, herding, weaving and household maintenance until they marry.

Rapid urbanization in Iran has created new opportunities for both men and women. In 20 years after the Revolution, women had achieved parity with men in literacy, and had exceeded men in numbers in university enrollment, including fields of traditional male employment such as engineering and medicine. Nevertheless, women's participation in the overall labor market remained low--at around 20 percent, and under the Islamic Republic, they have been absent from the industrial sector. They are increasingly more present in office work, retail employment and management.

Absentee landlords in Iran held traditional agricultural land for many hundreds of years. They employed a sharecropping arrangement with their tenant farmers based on a principle of five shares: land, water, seed, animal labor and human labor. The farmer rarely supplied more than human and animal labor, and thus received two-fifths of the produce. Additionally landlords hired some agricultural laborers to work land for them for direct wages. Sharecropping farmers received the land they farmed in the land reform movements of the 1960's and 1970's, but the wage farmers received nothing, and largely abandoned agricultural pursuits.

Nomadic tribes claim grazing rights along their route of migration, which are parceled out a by family affiliation. Tribal members also maintain agricultural land both at their summer and winter pasture headquarters.

Religious bequest (waqf) land plays a large role in Iranian life. Large landowners on their death have willed whole villages as well as other kinds of property to religious bequest trusts. Part of the strategic plan of the Pahlavi rulers was to break the economic power of the clergy who controlled this vast property by nationalizing it, and placing its administration under a government ministry. After the Revolution, nothing changed. The waqf is still administered by a government ministry.

In Iran women control marriages for their children. Even if a mother is diffident about marriage brokering, she is obliged to "clear the path" for a marriage proposal. She does this by letting her counterpart in the other family know that a proposal is forthcoming, or would be welcome. She then must confer with her husband, who makes the formal proposal in a social meeting between the two families. Marriage within the family is a common strategy, and a young man of marriageable age has an absolute right of first refusal for his father's brother's daughter--his patrilateral parallel cousin. Matrilateral cross-cousin marriages are also common, and exceed parallel-cousin marriages in urban areas, due perhaps to the wife's stronger influence in family affairs in cities. Twenty-five percent of urban marriages, thirty-one percent of rural marriages and fifty-one percent of tribal marriages were reported as endogamous in 1968. These percentages appear to have increased somewhat following the Revolution.

Traditional marriages involve a formal contract drawn up by a cleric. In the contract a series of payments are specified. The bride brings a dowry to the marriage usually consisting of household goods and her own clothing. In many parts of Iran the groom makes a payment to the mother of the bride as "milk money" in payment for raising her daughter. It is the custom in many parts of the country for wedding guests to make cash contributions to the father of the groom, who must bear the expense of the wedding. Some of this money goes for the wedding celebration itself, and some usually goes to the new couple to help them set up their household. The wedding celebration is held after the signing of the contract. It is really a prelude to the consummation of the marriage, which takes place typically at the end of the evening, or, in rural areas, at the end of several days' celebration. In many areas of Iran it is still important that the bride be virginal, and the bed sheets are carefully inspected to insure this.

One form of marriage unique to Iran is "temporary marriage," known as sighe or mut'a marriage. This is a direct contract between a man and a woman with no parental involvement. The woman is paid a specified amount for her agreement. This type of marriage is religiously sanctioned and can be for any duration from a few minutes to ninety-nine years. Iran is an Islamic nation, and polygyny is allowed. Statistics are difficult to ascertain, but one recent study claims that only one percent of all marriages are polygynous.

Divorce is less common in Iran than in the West. Families prefer to stay together even under difficult circumstances, since it is extremely difficult to disentangle the close network of interrelationships between the two extended families of the marriage pair. One recent study claims that the divorce rate is ten percent in Iran. Despite this relative stability, divorce rights have been a sticky point for government officials throughout this century. Men and women have unequal rights in this regard according to Islamic law. Technically a man can divorce his wife by merely saying "I divorce you." Under the Pahlavi regime men were required to have this action ratified in court. All secular governance of divorce was rescinded after the Revolution. Women had stronger rights to initiate divorce before the Revolution, and some of these rights have been restored in recent years. After a divorce, men assume custody of boys over three years and girls over seven. Women have been known to renounce their divorce payment in exchange for custody of their children.

In traditional Iranian rural society the "dinner cloth" often defines the minimal family. Many branches of an extended family may live in rooms in the same compound. However, they may not all eat together on a daily basis. Sons and their wives and children are often working for their parents in anticipation of a birthright in the form of land or animals. When they receive this, they will leave and form their own separate household. In the meantime they live in their parents' compound, but have separate eating and sleeping arrangements. The patriarch is the oldest male of the family. He demands respect from other family members and often has a strong role in the future of young relatives. It is common for members of an extended family to spread themselves out in terms of professions and influence. As younger members mature, older members of the family are expected to help them with jobs, introductions and financial support. This is not considered corrupt or nepotistic, but is seen rather one of the benefits of family membership.

Inheritance generally follows rules prescribed by Islamic law. Male children inherit full shares of their father's estate, wives and daughters half-shares. An individual may make a religious bequest of specific goods or property that is then administered by the ministry of waqfs.

The role of the mother is extremely important in Iran. Mothers are expected to breast-feed their babies for fear that they will become "remorseless." Mothers and children are expected to be mutually supportive. A mother will protect her children's reputation under all circumstances. Small children are indulged; they are magnets for attention from everyone in the society. It is very common to see an older child with full responsibility for care of a toddler. There is some rivalry between children in a family, but the rule of primogeniture is strong, and older children have the right to discipline younger children.

The father is the main disciplinarian of the family. It is the father's responsibility to protect the honor of the family, and this means keeping close watch on the women and their activities. Boys are far more indulged than girls. However, their father teaches them very early that the protection of family honor also resides with them. This is the beginning of a life-long enculturation that emphasizes self-denial, collectivism and interdependence with regard to the family.

Families place a very strong emphasis on education for both boys and girls. All Iranians would like their children to pursue higher education, and competition for university entrance is fierce.

There is an outward appearance of extensive social stratification in Iranian society. However, in Iran one can never judge a book by its cover. A traditional gentleman in ragged clothes, unshaven and without any outward trapping of luxury may be rich and powerful or he may be a revered spiritual leader. On the other hand a well-dressed gentleman may be mired in debt. And social mobility is eminently possible in Iran. Iranians tend to see the world in hierarchical terms, and find purely equal-status relationships challenging to sustain over a long period of time. In inside situations, status relationships are absolute, and they are sincerely observed. Status in this context indexes differences in age and standing within the structure of a family or an intimate group. In outside situations, status is highly relative, and the marking of it transitory and subject to change as circumstances dictate. A person may be accorded respect in one situation, then find him or herself obliged to give respect to someone higher in status still. These reversals can take place with dizzying speed, leaving many Westerners puzzled.

One fascinating counter-tendency in Iranian life is the drive in mystical Sufi sects to deny social stratification and hierarchy completely, by living simply and treating all as absolute equals (see Religion), a difficult task in Iranian life. The paradox is that by denying social stratification, the purest of the Sufi practitioners are accorded the highest respect by members of society.

Iran has made the transition in the last twenty years from a nominal constitutional monarchy to a democratic theocracy. It is likely that no human society has ever embraced Iran's current governmental form. Political organization is continually in flux in Iran; what is described is as of 2006.

As the United States has checks and balances in its governmental system, so does Iran. There is a strong President elected for a four-year term, and a unicameral legislature (majles) of 270 members, elected directly by the people, with some slots reserved for recognized minorities. The position of Speaker is politically important, since there is no Prime Minister. Suffrage is universal, and the voting age is 16. The president selects a Council of Ministers, an Expediency Council, and serves as the head of the Council of National Security.

Over and above these elected bodies there is a supreme jurisprudent selected by an independent Assembly of Experts--a council of religious judges. Alongside the chief jurisprudent is a twelve-member Council of Guardians, six selected by the chief jurisprudent, and six by the Supreme Judicial Council ratified by the majles. The Council of Guardians rules on the Islamic suitability of both elected officials and the laws they pass. They can disqualify candidates for election both before and after they are elected. Another council mediates between the Council of Guardians and the legislature.

The judiciary consists of a Supreme Judge and a Supreme Judicial council. All members must be Shi'a Muslim jurisprudents. Islamic Shari'a law is the foundation for the court's decisions. Freedom of the press and assembly are constitutionally guaranteed so long as such activities do not contradict Islamic law.

The units of governmental division are the province (ostan), "county" (sharestan), and township (dehestan). Each governmental unit has a head appointed by the Ministry of the Interior.

Although there is a standing Army, Navy and Air Force, the Revolutionary Guards (Pasdaran-e Engelab), organized shortly after the Revolution dominate military activities, often coming into conflict with the standard military forces. The military, national police and gendarmerie have in recent years been removed from the central government and placed under the administration of the office of the faqih.

The social lubricant of Iranian life is a system known as ta'arof, literally "meeting together." This is a ritualized system of linguistic and behavioral interactional strategies allowing individuals to interrelate in a harmonious fashion. The system marks the differences between andaruni and biruni situations as mentioned above, and also marks differences in relative social status. In general higher status persons are older and have important jobs, or command respect because of their learning, artistic accomplishments or erudition.

A downward gaze in Iran is a sign of respect. For men, downcast eyes are a defensive measure, since staring at women is usually taken as a sign of interest, and can cause difficulties.

The question of social control inevitably turns to the public behavioral roles of women in Iran. Women have always had a strong role in Iranian life, but rarely a public role. Islam requires that both women and men adopt modest dress that does not inflame carnal desire. For men this means eschewing tight pants, shorts, short-sleeved shirts, and open collars. Iranians view women's hair as erotic, and so covering both the hair and the female form are the basic requirements of modesty. For many centuries women in Iran have done this by wearing the chador, a semi-circular piece of dark cloth that is wrapped expertly around the body and head, and gathered at the chin. An alternate form of acceptable dress is a long dress with full-length opaque stockings, a long-sleeved coat, and a headscarf covering the hair. Makeup of any kind is not allowed.

Any public activity that would require women to depart from this modest dress in mixed company is expressly forbidden.

Much of social behavior in Iran is designed to avoid direct conflict. The structure of social hierarchy, codes of etiquette and the requirements of hospitality prevent many petty conflicts from breaking into violence. Several forms of conflict require direct expression of anger. In Iran an affront to honor--either personal or family--requires a display of righteous anger (gheirat). This is always done in public and usually in a situation where other parties will control the person expressing anger.

However, a common way of expressing conflict with persons with whom one is close is through withdrawal. This state of non-interaction is known as qahr. Once two people are in a state of qahr they depend on others to mediate the conflict and force the two parties to reconcile.

In hierarchical relations, dissatisfied subordinates may undermine their superiors by sabotaging work and collective life through acts such as losing or misdirecting documents, the spreading of rumors and slowing of work processes. This is sometimes termed aziyat or "bothering," the same term that is used to describe a pestering child or family member.

Iran has been somewhat blessed by an absence of specific ethnic conflict. This is noteworthy, given the large number of ethnic groups living within its borders, both today and in the past. It is safe to conclude that the general Iranian population neither persecutes ethnic minorities, nor openly discriminates against them. Discrimination against religious minorities is another matter. The severest social persecution in Iran has been directed at religious minorities.

The state religion in Iran is Ithna-ashara or "Twelver" Shi'ism, established by the Safavid Dynasty in the seventeenth century. Shi'a Muslims revere the descendants of Fatimeh, daughter of the Prophet Mohammad, and her husband, Ali, Mohammad's cousin. There are twelve Imams recognized by this branch of Shi'ism. Although the vast majority of Iranians are "Twelver" Shi'a Muslims, there are other important religious minorities--Zoroastrians, Iranian Jews, Armenians, an ancient Christian people, Assyrian Christians, Sunni Muslims, and Baha'i.

There is no formal certification for Islamic clergy. Technically all sincere Muslims can establish themselves as religious practitioners. Women cannot preach to men, but female clerics ministering to women are not uncommon. In the normal course of training a young man attends a religious school. He takes classes from revered scholars who give him a certificate when he has completed a course of study to their satisfaction. After some time he may receive a call to take up residence in a community needing a cleric.

In time, he may acquire a reputation as a mujtahed or "jurisprudent" capable of interpreting Islamic law. Since there is no fixed theological doctrine in Shi'ism beyond the Qur'an and the Hadith (traditions of the Prophet Mohammad), believers are free to follow the religious leader of their choice, and his interpretation of Islamic law. An ambitious cleric may rise to become an Ayatollah (literally "Reflection of God). Mysticism plays an important role in Iranian religion. Religious orders of Sufi mystics have been active in Iran for many centuries. Sufis focus on an inward meditative path for the pursuit of religious truth that may include group chanting and dance.

It is Hossein, however, who is the true central figure in Iranian symbolic life. Hossein was martyred in a struggle for power between rival sects, later concretized as Shi'a and Sunni. His death can be termed a "master symbol" for Iranian culture. This martyrdom is ritually observed throughout the year on every possible occasion. The Islamic months of Moharram and Safar are months of ritual mourning for Hossein, with processions, self-flagellation, and ten-day dramatic depictions of the events of the martyrdom (see Arts).

Just as Hossein is a central figure, everyone associated with him and his descendants who lived in Iran are equally revered--in particular Imam Reza, the 8th leader of Shi'a Muslims. His astonishingly lavish shrine is one of the major pilgrimage destinations for Shi'a Muslims, as are the shrines of his sister and brother in Qum and Shiraz.

Shrines of Islamic saints are extremely important in Iranian religious practice. A pilgrimage to a local shrine is a common religious and social occasion. Longer pilgrimages to Kerbala, Mashhad or Mecca are greatly respected, and persons making these journeys receive a religious title by which they are henceforth addressed: Kerbalai, Mashhadi, and Hajji respectively.

Most holidays in Iran are religious holidays revolving around the birth or death of the various Shi'a Imams. There are thirty of these days, all calculated according to the lunar calendar, which is always at variance with the Iranian solar calendar. Most of these holidays involve mourning, at which time the story of Hossein's martyrdom at Kerbala is recited. The exception is the birthday of the Twelfth Imam, which is a happy celebration. Most holidays in Iran are religious in nature. The few secular holidays relate to pre-Islamic practice, or modern political events.

The Iranian New Year's Celebration (Now Ruz) is the nation's principal secular holiday, lasting thirteen days. In some parts of Iran the winter solstice is celebrated. The nation also celebrates Islamic Republic Day on April first to mark the Revolution.

The role of the arts in Iran is highly complex. On the one hand, Iranians have one of the richest and most elaborate artistic traditions in the world. On the other hand, Islamic leaders disapprove of many forms of artistic expression. Under the Pahlavi regime, the arts were heavily supported and promoted. Under the Islamic Republic this support has continued, but moral censorship has invaded virtually every form of artistic expression. Two Islamic prohibitions affect arts in the most direct way: a prohibition against music, and against the depiction of humans and animals in art. Additionally, the early Muslims considered poetry to be suspect, since it was thought to be inspired by jinn. Iranians over the centuries took these prohibitions somewhat lightly. Iranian poets are revered. The nation has developed a distinguished coterie of novelists, essayists and exponents of belles lettres, both male and female. Persian miniature paintings illustrating Iranian epics and classic stories are among the world's great art treasures. Another tradition, more religiously approved, is the artistic development of calligraphy. Iran's modern painters often use classic themes from miniatures combined with calligraphy for a uniquely Persian effect. Geometric design is also approved, and is seen in architectural detail and carpet design.

Persian classical music is one of the most elaborate artistic forms ever created. The musical system consists of twelve modal units called dastgah. These are divided into small melodic units called gusheh, most of which are associated with classic Persian poetic texts. A full performance of classical music consists of alternating a-rhythmic and rhythmic sections from a single dastgah. The instrumentalist and the vocal artist improvise within the modal structure, creating a unique performance. Popular music forms are largely based on the more melodic structures of classical music, and are highly disapproved by the religious authorities. Many popular Iranian musicians now live abroad, where they record and export their music back to Iran. Women are not allowed to perform music in public under the current government.

Iran has two unique traditional dramatic forms. The first, ta'zieh is an elaborate pageant depicting the death of Imam Hossein. The other dramatic form is a comic improvisatory form known commonly as ru-howzi theater, because it was typically performed on a platform placed over the pool (howz) in a courtyard. Modern western drama entered Iran at the end of the nineteenth century. The Iranian film industry is decades old, but in the 1970's it began to develop as a serious art form. Iranian films have won major international prizes in recent years. Officials of the Islamic Republic grudgingly lend their support to the industry.

Carpets are art of the highest order. The finest take years to complete and have hundreds of knots per square inch. The designs are drawn from a traditional stock of motifs, but are continually elaborated upon by weavers. Finally, there are centuries-old traditions of silver-work, wood-block printing, enamel ware, inlay work and filagree jewelry manufacture.

Health care in Iran is generally very good. Life expectancy is relatively high (70 years) and the nation does not have any severe endemic infectious diseases. The principal cause of death is heart and circulatory disease. Malaria has been virtually eliminated, cholera and other waterborne diseases are generally under control, and family planning programs have resulted in dramatic decreases in fertility rates. The infant mortality rate remains somewhat elevated (twenty-nine per thousand) but it has declined significantly over the past twenty years. AIDS figures are suppressed. Opium addiction has been a continual medical concern in Iran.

A folk-belief in humoral medicine is prevalent in Iran today revolving around dietary practice. This philosophy tries to maintain balance between the four humors of the body: blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black bile through judicious combinations of foods. Most Iranians adhere to a two-category system: hot and cold.

Islamic funerary practices predominate in Iran. Muslims bury their dead as they believe that the dead body must be respected and not harmed in any way. At the point of death, a chapter from the Quran is read and a few drops of holy water are given to the dying person. After death, the body is bathed, anointed with scents and draped in a seamless white shroud. The Muslim custom states that the body should be buried within 24 hours of death in an unmarked grave, although in Iran the practice of placing gravestones is widespread. Other religious minorities in Iran are allowed to practice their own funeral rites. The afterlife in Islam is largely drawn from Iranian imagery. Paradise is a spirit realm of extreme bliss where dutiful believers live in luxury and leisure, attended by houris, who are "pure beings," (sometimes misidentified as virgins). In a dry nation such as Iran, gardens are highly valued, and it is no surprise that the afterlife is depicted as a garden, which is frequently idealized in carpet patterns.

Documents referred to in this section are include in the eHRAF collction and are referenced by author, date of publication, and eHRAF document number.

The Iran collection consists of 65 documents, 64 of which are in English, and one (Masse, 1938, no. 7), a translation from the French. The time span for these documents ranges from about 2000 B.C. to 2006 A.D. Probably the most comprehensive coverage of Iranian culture history and ethnography, in summary form, will be found in Beeman, 2006, no. 104. Several other studies in this collection also provide some supplementary data on Iranian history and ethnography but these are relatively time dated in coverage. These include Masse, 1938, no. 7 (to the 1930s), Haas, 1946, no. 9 (to the 1940s), and Anonymous, 1953, no. 41 (to the 1950s). The works by Metz, 1989, no. 81, and Hooglund, 1989, no. 100 do not extend their general ethnographic coverage beyond 1987. Other ethnographic topics discussed in this collection are: agriculture and irrigation development in: Fitt, 1953, no. 21; Hadary, 1951, no. 26; Noel, 1944, no. 50; and Fisher, 1938, no. 40. Land tenure and land reform are primary topics in: Lambton, 1953, no. 3; and Keddie, 1972, no. 98. Various aspects of Iranian economics are described in detail in: Michalis, 1954, no. 68; Gupta, 1947, no. 5; and MacPherson, 1989, no. 101. Culture change figures prominently in many of the documents in this collection, but especially in: Hooglund, 1981, no. 87; Good, 1981, no. 88; and Nassehi-Behnam, 1985, no. 77. Several other topics given particular attention in this collection are: gender roles and women's status in Iranian society in: Higgins, 1994, no. 93; Friedl, 1994, no. 96; Aghajanian, 1994, no. 94; and Heglund, 2004, no. 75. Industry and industrial development in: International Labor Office, 1950, 1949, nos. 39 and 47; Sinclair, 1951, no. 20; Overseas Consultants, 1949, no. 58; and Naficy, 1981, no. 89. Nomadism and minority groups in Iran in: Salzman, 2002, no. 82; Higgins, 1986, no. 84; and Kazemi, 1980, no. 85. Politics form a major topic of discussion in: Hooglund, 1989, no. 102; and Elwell-Sutton, 1949, no. 23. A detailed description of the Islamic Revolution of 1978-1979 will be found in Fischer, 1980, no. 92.

The reader is also referred to the works of Erika Friedl on the Lur of western Iran who basically share similar cultural traits with the other people of Iran (see the eHRAF collection Lur).

For more detailed information on the content of the individual works in this collection, see the abstracts in the citations preceding each document.

The culture summary was written by William O. Beeman in May-June, 2006. The Synopsis and indexing notes were written by John Beierle in June 2006. We thank Daniel Bradburd, William Beeman, and Lois Beck for providing general advice on cultures in Iran.

• ASSEMBLY OF EXPERTS - a form of parliamentary assembly; also a council of religious judges - use PARLIAMENT (646), LEGAL AND JUDICIAL PERSONNEL (693), and RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS (795)

• ARBAB - landlord - use STATUS, ROLE, AND PRESTIGE (554)

• Caliphs - use PROPHETS AND ASCETICS (792)

• Camps - use COMMUNITY STRUCTURE (621)

• COUNCIL OF GUARDIANS - a group of senior Islamic jurists and other experts in Islamic law who are empowered by the Constitution to veto or demand revision of any legislation it considers in violation of Islam or the Constitution - use LEGAL AND JUDICIAL PERSONNEL (693)

• Crusade for Reconstruction - use ECONOMIC PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT (179)

• DARVISH - Sufi saint - use PROPHETS AND ASCETICS (792)

• DEHESTAN - township - use TOWNS (632)

• DOWREH - circle of intimate friends - use FRIENDSHIPS (572), and SODALITIES (575)

• EHSHAMS - residential groups or camps - use COMMUNITY STRUCTURE (621)

• FAQIH - chief jurisprudent or judge - use LEGAL AND JUDICIAL PERSONNEL (693)

• FAZL - cash gifts, usually at weddings - use GIFT GIVING (431)

• FOUNDATION FOR THE DISINHERITED - use PUBLIC ASSISTANCE (746)

• GARMSIR - winter quarters for a nomadic group - use SETTLEMENT PATTERNS (361)

• HAJI FIRUZ - a comic character and harbinger of New Years - use HUMOR (522), and REST DAYS AND HOLIDAYS (527)

• HAKIM - traditional physician - use MEDICAL PERSONNEL (759)

• KADKHUDA - clan heads - use SIBS (614), and COMMUNITY HEADS (622)

• KALANTAR -head of subtribe, composed of several clans - use SIBS (614), and COMMUNITY HEADS (622)

• KASKHODA (KATKHODA) - a village official or appointed headman and landowner's representative - use COMMUNITY HEADS (622)

• KAVIR - low basin - use TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY (133)

• KHOMEINI - as a religious leader, use PRIESTHOOD (793); as head of the Iranian State, use CHIEF EXECUTIVE (643)

• KOMAK - mutual assistance - use MUTUAL AID (476)

• KOMITEH - urban revolutionary committee - use CITIES (633),POLITICAL MOVEMENTS (668), and REVOLUTION (669)

• LUTI - neighborhood strongman - use STATUS, ROLE, AND PRESTIGE (554)

• MADRASEH - religious college or seminary that train men in Islamic jurisprudence - use VOCATIONAL EDUCATION (874)

• MAHRIYEH - a stipulated sum that a groom gives to his new bride - use MODE OF MARRIAGE (583)

• MAJLIS - the Iranian parliament - use PARLIAMENT (646)

• MAKTAB - primary school run by clergy - use ELEMENTARY EDUCATION (872)

• MOJAHEDIN - armed leftist political movement - use POLITICAL MOVEMENTS (668) and REVOLUTION (669)

• MUTA - a special form of temporary marriage - use SPECIAL UNIONS AND MARRIAGES (588)

• NAZRI - sacrifices - use PRAYERS AND SACRIFICES (782)

• NOW RUZ - New Years - use REST DAYS AND HOLIDAYS (527)

• OSTAN - province - use PROVINCES (635)

• OULAD - a lineage group - use LINEAGES (613)

• PARVANES - government grazing permits - use GOVERNMENT REGULATION (656), and PASTORAL ACTIVITIES (233)

• PASDARAN - a military force loyal to the Revolution - use MILITARY ORGANIZATION (701), and REVOLUTION (669)

• PETROCHEMICAL INDUSTRY - use CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES (380)

• QANAT - man-made underground water channels; reservoirs - use WATER SUPPLY (312)

  QOM KHISH - close kin - use KIN RELATIONSHIPS (602)

• PASDARAN - militia - use MILITARY ORGANIZATION (701)

• REGIONAL COOPERATION FOR DEVELOPMENT (RCD) - use ECONOMIC PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT (179)

• REVOLUTIONARY COUNCIL - use REVOLUTION (669)

• ROZEH - religious event - use ORGANIZED CEREMONIAL (796)

• RU-HOZI - comic improvisatory theater - use HUMOR (522), and DRAMA (536)

• SATRAP - a provincial governor in ancient Persia - use PROVINCES (635)

• SARHAD - summer quarters for a nomadic group - use SETTLEMENT PATTERNS (361)

• SAVAMA - secret police - use POLICE (625)

• SHAGERD - physician apprentice - use MEDICAL PERSONNEL (759)

• SHARESTAN - county - use DISTRICTS (634)

• SHARIK - related households - use HOUSEHOLD (592), FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS (593) and KIN RELATIONSHIPS (602)

• TA'ZIYEH - passion drama - use VERBAL ARTS (5310), MUSICAL AND THEATRICAL PRODUCTIONS (545), and THEOLOGICAL SYSTEMS (779)

• TAAROF - ritual courtesy - use SOCIOLINGUISTICS (195), STATUS, ROLE, AND PRESTIGE (554), MANIPULATIVE MOBILITY (557), and ETIQUETTE (576)

• TAIFE - patronymic group or tribe as a whole - use TRIBE AND NATION (619), and SIBS (614)

• TARAF - traditional merchant - use MERCANTILE BUSINESS (441)

• ULAMA - Islamic cleric and authority - use PRIESTHOOD (793)

• VAAQ - inalienable land - use REAL PROPERTY (423)

• WAQF(VAQF) - a religious endowment - use CONGREGATIONS (794)

• ZERANGI - cleverness - use PERSONALITY TRAITS (157), and MANIPULATIVE MOBILITY (557)

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