Abipón

South Americahunter-gatherers

CULTURE SUMMARY: ABIPÓN
ETHNONYMS

Abipónes, Abipon, Mepene, Eusgina, Callagaic, Quiabanaité, Fretones

ORIENTATION
IDENTIFICATION AND LOCATION

The Abipón were a nomadic people occupying the Gran Chaco region of Paraguay and Argentina. Subsistence was derived primarily from hunting, fishing and gathering, and to a limited extent, farming. The Abipón were divided into three large subgroups (probably bands): the Riikahe (People of the Open Country), the Nakaigétergehe (Forest People) , and the Yaaucanigas (Water People) the latter of whom were formerly a distinct tribal group, with a separate language differing from that of the Abipón,. The Yaaucanigas were eventually assimilated into the latter society. By the 1770s or early 1800s the Abipón ceased to exist as a viable tribal group  as the result of warfare, disease, or by assimilation into surrounding ethnic populations.

DEMOGRAPHY

According to Father Martin Dobrizhoffer, a Jesuit who lived among the Paraguayan Abipón for eighteen years (1749-1767), the tribe numbered about 5000 individuals. After contact with the Spanish, the population rapidly declined, so that by 1767 there were only 2000 remaining Abipón distributed in the four Jesuit missions of San Jerónimo (the city of Reconquista), Concepción, San Fernando, and Timbó (Rosario).

LINGUISTIC AFFILIATION

Abipón was a native American language belonging to the Mataco-Guaycuru family of languages, and closely related to that spoken by the Toba and Mokoví. The language is now (late twentieth century) extinct in the region with the last speaker thought to have died in the nineteenth century.

HISTORY AND CULTURAL RELATIONS

Originally the Abipón lived along the northern banks of the lower Bermejo River. after the acquisition of the horse in the seventeenth century, either from the Spanish or the Calchaqui (the Diaguita of Chile), they began to expand southward. With the increased mobility provided by the horse, they soon took to a life of raiding and became greatly feared by their neighbors as well as the Spanish. In the first half of the eighteenth century, the Abipón, together with the Mocoví and Toba, ranged over a vast territory bounded on the north by the middle and lower course of the Bermejo River, on the east by the Paraná River, on the south by the Spanish settlements of Santa Fé, and on the west by those of Cósdoba and Santiago del Estero (Metraux 1946: 219). Their mobility was remarkable. After raiding the southern colonies of the Spaniards, they retired far northwards, attacked the city of Asunción, and then hurried back to the south (Dobrizhoffer 1822: 5). Around 1710, a major military effort by the Spanish finally brought the Abipón under submission.

The first missionaries to visit the Abipón were the Jesuit Fathers Juan Fonte and Francisco de Angulo who in 1591 baptized the children in the bands living near Concepción on the Bermejo River. They were again visited in 1641, by Fathers Juan Pastor and Gaspar Arqueyra but only for a very brief time. Father Martin Dobrizhoffer, a Jesuit missionary, lived among the Abipón of  Paraguay for eighteen years from 1749-1767 and his acute observations of Abipón lifeways constitutes what little we know of the ethnography of these people who ceased to exist as a tribal entity by the mid-nineteenth century. By 1750 Jesuit missions had been well established among the Abipón who were forced to become sedentary under Spanish control. By the time that the Jesuit orders had been expelled by the government in 1768, more than half of the Abipón population had died from disease. Following the expulsion of the Jesuits, the history of the Abipón is confused. Some attempted to return to their original homeland, but found them occupied by settlers and other ethnic populations, others waged war against the Toba and Mocoví while still others (in 1770) migrated to the eastern side of the Paraná River at Las Garzas and Goya. Within fifty years disease, warfare, and assimilation into neighboring populations had destroyed the Abipón as a nation (Metraux 1946: 220).

SETTLEMENTS

As the result of the nomadic nature of the society, the Abipón had no fixed settlements, but instead made camp wherever they found adequate food, water, wood, and pasturage for their horses. These temporary camps were generally located in defensive positions to protect them against sudden surprise attacks of their enemies. After their pacification by the Spanish, many of the Abipón established new residences at the mission stations.

ECONOMY
SUBSISTENCE

The Abipón subsisted primarily by hunting, supplemented by the gathering of roots and alfaroba pods (the sweet pulpy pods of mesquite), and a little fishing. Prior to their acquisition of the horse the Abipón practiced a limited amount of agriculture.

INDUSTRIAL ARTS

Crafts included pottery and loom-weaving.

DIVISION OF LABOR

The Abipón observed a distinct division of labor in their society. Women made clothes for their families, gathered eatable roots and fruits, prepared a fermented drink made of honey and/or alfaroba for their husbands, gathered water and wood for the family, made pottery, prepared the meals, did loom-weaving and played a major role in funerals. They also instructed girls in the domestic duties of females. Men engaged in warfare, hunted, prepared weapons, and tutored boys from their earliest age in the arts of riding, swimming, hunting, and warfare.

LAND TENURE

Because of the nomadic nature of these people the Abipón assumed no proprietorship over lands, rivers, or groves of trees in their natural environment, with all members of the society having equal rights to hunting, fishing, and gathering, within their boundaries. All products that were obtained by hunting, fishing, or gathering became the property of the first person who chose to take them.

MARRIAGE AND FAMILY
MARRIAGE

Marriage was effected through the payment of bride-price, after bargaining with the parents of the girl. The bride-price, paid by the groom, usually consisted of horses, strings of beads, garments of various colors, a spear furnished with an iron point, or other articles of this kind. Marriages between first cousins were forbidden. The marriage ceremony itself was fairly simple, involving a visit by the bride to the tent of the bride-groom, followed subsequently by two or three return visits in which the bride carried household utensils and personal goods to her husband's tent. Residence was initially matrilocal but eventually the couple set up their own separate household, especially after the son-in-law had been fully accepted by the girl's family, or after the birth of the first child. Marriage was generally monogamous, but polygamy and divorce, although rare, could occur.

DOMESTIC UNIT

Following marriage the bride and groom lived in the bride's extended family but eventually were allowed to set up a separate household of their own.

SOCIALIZATION

Childhood was characterized by general permissiveness; in fact, refractory, aggressive and hostile acts were encouraged. No matter how disobedient their children might be, they were never censured by word or by blow. Insolence on the part of the child was treated by the father as the mark of an audacious mind, and rewarded with laughter and praise.

In general, fathers took the responsibility of training their sons in skills they deemed necessary for their future life – riding, swimming, hunting, and warfare. Mothers, on the other hand, instructed their daughters in those domestic duties expected of females in Abipón society.  

SOCIOPOLITICAL ORGANIZATION
SOCIAL ORGANIZATION

As noted previously the Abipón were divided into three subgroups, the Riikahes, the Nakaikétergehes, and the Yaaukanigas, all speaking a mutually intelligible language, but with each group having certain words peculiar to itself. In addition, the Abipón observed a definite stratification into classes of nobles, commoners, and slaves (presumably captives taken in warfare). Men who attained the status of "nobles" did so generally through their personal bravery in warfare, wealth, or other special qualifications that made them outstanding individuals in the society (e.g., generosity, etc.). Persons who achieve the rank of  "noble" are called Hëcheri, and are distinguished from the common people by a special language usage in which words were transformed by the interposition, or addition of other letters, that made them appear to belong to a different language. The personal names of men belonging to this class, end in  In, while the names of women who also could attain this rank, end in En. What circumstances entitled women to this honor is unclear, but it seems likely that it was based on the merits of their parents, husbands, or brothers (Dobrizhoffer 1822: 444).

POLITICAL ORGANIZATION

The Abipón did not acknowledge any supreme or paramount chief over the whole nation. Each of the subgroups were headed by a man, called capitan or cacique by the Spaniards; nelaŕeyŕát or capitâ by the Abipón. Upon the death of this headman he was succeeded by his eldest son, but only if he were of good character, and of a noble and warlike disposition. If he was indolent, ill-natured, and foolish in his conduct, he was set aside, and another individual substituted. Actually the capitâ had very little power in the society. If he chose to exert his authority against the wishes of the general community, he might be severely punished in the next drinking party either by insults or physical means (being beaten by those attending). Although the Abipón neither feared their headman as a judge, nor honored him as a master, yet his fellow warriors were quite willing to follow him as a leader into battle. Women of noble birth, could also achieve the position of capitâ in the society. These women were given the title of  Nelareycaté.

SOCIAL CONTROL

Public condemnation, ridicule and the fear of sorcery were the primary means of social control in  the society.

CONFLICT

Early reports on the Abipón characterized the society as being aggressive and warlike. Disputes within the community often ended in bloodshed on the most trivial of occasions. At the drinking parties following a successful raid, men would frequently boast of their own valor in battle and impugn such qualities in others. These remarks frequently led to general brawls, fist fights, and eventually, to the use of spears and arrows against one another.

Motivated by the desire of acquiring booty, personal glory, or in revenge for the killing of a member of the group, warfare conducted against neighboring tribal groups was a frequent occurrence. Decisions to wage war against one's neighbors were decided in council (usually a drinking party) between the warriors of the community and the capitâ or leader/headman of the group. Warfare tactics were well developed  among the Abipón. Some of these involved preliminary scouting of the enemy camp, surprise attacks accompanied by the loud blowing of trumpets and whistles to disorient their foe, ambuscade when the occasion presented itself, and planned withdrawal in battle to entice the enemy to follow. If the enemy did so and became isolated from the rest of their companions, they were surrounded and destroyed. When faced with determined and well armed opponents, however, it was not unusual for the warriors to flee. Military expeditions were accompanied  by the capitâ  and the tribal shaman ("juggler" according to Dobrizhoffer) who performed magic to insure the success of the warriors.

After the Abipón had obtained the horse, raiding expeditions were carried out many miles away from their home base. Each warrior took with him at least three horses, one to ride, and the others to serve as spares. His primary weapon was a long lance, sometimes supplemented with a bow and arrows. Provisions were not carried along on the trip; the raiders preferring to live off the land. The only armor sometimes used in battle were thick animal hides, although most men preferred to go naked or nearly so in order to more easily dodge the weapons of their enemies.

RELIGION AND EXPRESSIVE CULTURE
RELIGIOUS BELIEFS  

Despite their seemingly lack of  belief in a supreme being, the Abipón did believe in the immortality of the soul; that some part of them would survive after death, which would last to all eternity, and never die. What would become of that immortal thing called soul when it separated from the body, and whether or not it would enjoy pleasures or receive punishments, they never considered in their theology (Dobrizhoffer 1822: 270). They did fear what they believed were the disembodied spirits of the dead, who could be contacted through magical incantations to reveal information on future events.

By the mid to late eighteenth century many of the Abipón had been Christianized by the missionaries and were content to live on reservations.

According to the account of the Jesuit Dobrizhoffer the Abipón were unacquainted with the concept of God or even the very name of God, yet affectionately related to a spirit called Aharaigichi or Queevèt to whom they gave the title "grandfather". This "grandfather" was closely associated in the minds of the Abipón with the cluster of stars known as the Pleiades.

RELIGIOUS PRACTITIONERS

The primary religious practitioners among the Abipón  were the shamans, or as Dobrizhoffer called them, "jugglers". These individuals, who could be of either gender, occupied multiple roles in the society: as priests in ceremonies; as sorcerers, inflicting disease and death on individuals; as physicians in the curing of disease and treatment of  injuries; as prophets of future events; as magicians who can control the weather; as soothsayers in their alleged ability to call up the spirits of the dead; and on occasion were believed to assume animal forms (generally a jaguar) in order to intimidate the population. On a raid, the shaman would perform magical rites in order to bring evil down on the enemy.

CEREMONIES

Promotion to the rank of noble or leader in the society also involved some degree of  ritual behavior. These individuals, called Höcheri, were selected from the population on the basis of the honors they received in warfare or by their general leadership ability. Ceremonies of inauguration involved a three day period of fasting, and silence on the part of the initiate followed by a partial shaving of the head, speeches about the noble actions of the candidate, and finally the assumption of a new name. This ceremony was terminated by a drinking match.

Other ceremonies were observed on the birth of a child, the death of a relative, a resolution of war, or the celebration of a victory.

As noted above the Abipón thought of the Pleiades as a representation of their "grandfather"; and as that cluster of stars seasonally disappeared from the sky they supposed that their "grandfather" was sick and were quite apprehensive that he was going to die. As these stars once again became visible in the month of May, there was much rejoicing among the people, for they assumed that "grandfather" had recovered from his sickness, and his return was greeted with joyful shouts, dancing and singing accompanied by the sound of pipes and trumpets.

ARTS

The clothing of the Abipón was made by women who sheared sheep, spun the wool, dyed it beautifully by the aid of alum, and afterwards wove it into cloth adorned with various lines and figures and of a variety of colors. The weaving was done on a simple loom consisting of a few reeds and sticks. As cold weather protection women also dressed the hides of animals, chiefly the otter, and made elegant cloaks. These cloaks were worn by both men and women, and were especially valued by the old people of both genders who would not part with them even in the hottest weather.

In addition to the preparation of clothing, women also moulded pots and jugs from various forms of clay using only their hands. These clay vessels were not baked in a kiln, but instead were hardened by placing them outside in the sun. Glazing was not used, but the pottery was dyed red and then rubbed with a kind of glue to make them shine.

Men were skillful in the preparation of their weapons from a wood found in Paraguay called neterge which is of a red color and extremely hard. These weapons, mostly bows and lances, were maintained in excellent condition.

Dancing accompanied by singing, was also important to the Abipón lifestyle

MEDICINE

Medicinal herbs, such as roots and leaves, were  widely available in the environment, and used to great extent by the Abipón. These were either chewed and the juice swallowed, or applied in the form of a poultice to a wound. Some shamans were skilled in the setting of broken bones which they then wrapped with medicinal leaves. Hen's fat used in conjunction with certain types of cabbage leaves was frequently applied to wounds in order to prevent inflammation.

Sorcery was believed to be the chief causes of disease and death in the society. The curing of a disease or injury was effected by the shaman (juggler) through alternate blowing and sucking on that part of the body which was in pain. Dobrizhoffer notes that secretly the shaman would put thorns, beetles, worms, etc., into their mouths, and spitting them out , after having sucked for some time, would say to the patient  "there is the cause of your disorder" (Dobrizhoffer, 1822, 251). Shamans also claimed the ability to cure an individual  by words alone. Sitting beside the sick man/woman they would sing various verses as magical charms, hoping to reconcile the evil spirit, or to call up the spirits of the dead  to aid in removing the disease.

DEATH AND AFTERLIFE

As with disease, death was generally viewed as being caused by the sorcery of a shaman and every effort is made to discover the identity of the individual responsible. One method used, actually a form of counter sorcery, was to pull out the heart and tongue of the deceased, boil them, and give them to a dog to eat, in the hope that the author of the death would also soon die.

The corpse, while yet warm, is clothed, wrapped in a hide, and transported to the grave site by horseback. Women preceded the funeral procession in order to dig the grave, and then proceeded to honor the deceased with weeping and wailing.  The filled-in grave is then covered with thorny branches to keep animals away; and an inverted pan placed on the grave in case the dead man might need water, and a garment placed on a nearby tree in case the individual should choose to come out of the grave. On the graves of distinguished individuals the favorite horses of the deceased were sacrificed. These actions would seem to indicate a definite belief in the immortality of the soul, but where this soul exists after death the Abipón had no idea. They did believe, however, that the spirits or souls of the dead could become visible to the living, when invoked by a magic incantation by the shaman, and questioned about future events.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Dobrizhoffer, Martin (1822). An  Account of the Abipones, An Equestrian People of Paraguay, Vol 2. London: John Murray.

Metraux, Alfred (1946). Ethnography of the Chaco. Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 143,  Vol. 1. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. 197-370.

Murdock, George P. (1951). "Abipon". In, Outline of  South American Cultures, Vol. II. New Haven, Human Relations Area Files, Inc.  p. 55.

CREDITS

This culture summary, as well as the synopsis and indexing notes, were written by John Beierle in February 2009.