Huron/Wendat

Linda Sioui

The Huron people originated and lived in an area surrounded by lakes and bays. This, along with parallels in their creation myth, is perhaps why they called themselves "Wendat," meaning "inhabitants of the island" or "inhabitants of the peninsula." At the start of the contact period (early seventeenth century), Samuel de Champlain called this semi-sedentary people "Huron," in reference to the hairstyle the warrior men wore, resembling the tuft of hair on a wild boars' head. For the purpose of this culture summary, the ethnonym "Wendat" will be used.

The ancestral land of the Wendat, which the French called "Huronia" during the contact period, was located in the what is now the Province of Ontario (Canada), nearly a two hours’ drive north of Toronto. According to the Jesuit Relations, Huronia's 544 square kilometers at the southern edge of the Canadian Shield could be travelled in three or four days. The original inhabitants called it "Wendake," and it was delimited to the east by Lake Simcoe, to the west by Nottawassaga Bay (the most southern extension of Georgian Bay), to the north by Matchedash Bay (part of Georgian Bay), and to the south by the drainage basin of the Nottawasaga River. Nowadays, “Wendake” refers to the actual Wendat community, northwest of Quebec City, while the former homeland is referred to as “Wendake Ehen” (“Old” or “Defunct” Huronia).

When French explorer Samuel de Champlain first encountered the Wendat(1615-1616), he found approximately eighteen villages and a total population of 30,000 souls, including 2,000 warriors. Less than a decade later Recollet brother Gabriel Sagard estimated their population at between 30,000 to 40,000, in about twenty-five villages. Data varies regarding the total population at the time of contact, but on average is thought to have been around 29,000 souls. A normal-size Wendat family would have been composed of five to eight members, with an average of three to five children per family. Diseases brought by the French—such as smallpox, measles and influenza—had a devastating effect on the Wendat, reducing population by at least half between 1630 and 1640.

The Wendat language belongs to the Iroquoian (Nadouek) family. Due to the important role the Wendat played as middlemen during the fur trade era (first half of the seventeenth century), Wendat was the lingua franca of business and diplomacy.

According to the Wendat cosmovision the first woman, Aataentsic, fell from the sky and landed on the back of a giant turtle, on which the water animals built the earth (Turtle Island). Once this land was created, Aataentsic gave birth to a daughter who then gave birth to two sons, Tawiskaron and Iouskeha, the progenitors of good and evil.

After 1649, the non-Christian Wendat survivors went to join the survivors of the Tionnontati (or Petun) people, who had also been attacked in the final days of Huronia. Thenceforth, this group, who became known as the Wyandot, migrated around the Great Lakes and during the 1700s were found living at the trading post of Detroit in what is now Michigan. The group, who also occupied much of present-day Ohio, was pressured by the U.S. Government to sign treaties, and the majority of them were relocated to Kansas and, subsequently, to northeastern Oklahoma. Although the Wyandotte Nation of Oklahoma is officially recognized by the Bureau of Indian Affairs in Washington, some Wyandot descendants are still found today in Detroit, Brownstown/Anderdon (Michigan/Ontario), Sandusky (Ohio), and near Kansas City (Kansas), namely.

The Wendat maintained good relations with their western neighbors, the Tionnontati (also known as the Petun or Tobacco confederacy—nations of the Wolf and Deer), among whom some Algonquins lived. The Tionnontati had the same customs as the Wendat and spoke mutually intelligible languages. To the southwest lived the Neutral, a confederacy of about forty villages. They were given the name "Neutral" because they maintained a peace with the Iroquois and the Wendat. Another Iroquoian-speaking group, the Wenro—located across the Niagara River from the Neutral and neighbors of the Seneca—became allies with the Wendat around 1638. The Wendat were also on friendly terms with neighboring Algonkian-speaking nations, such as the Ojibway, the Potawatomi, and the Ottawa.

The year of 1649 was decisive for the Wendat people. Diseases such as smallpox, disagreements over religious faith (Christianity versus traditional beliefs), and the inability to reach consensus in council were all contributing factors in the downfall of the Wendat Confederacy. The final blow came with concerted attacks on the villages of Huronia and neighboring nations by the Haudenosaunee, or Five Nations Iroquois Confederacy. Upon the destruction of their homeland, the Christian Wendat sought refuge on Christian Island, and then relocated to Quebec City with Jesuit Father Joseph-Marie Chaumonot in the spring of 1650. There, they settled in Sillery, Île d’Orléans (1651-1656), Québec (1656-1668), Beauport (1668-1669), Ancienne-Lorette (1673-1697) and, in 1697, they established the still-occupied settlement of Wendake, some fifteen kilometers northwest of Quebec City. Since that time they have intermarried with French Canadians as well as with other First Nations such as the Innu, the Atikamekw, the Abenaki, and the Malecite to name a few, but have kept a distinct identity. Officially known as La Nation Huronne-Wendat, they have prospered, numbering over 4,000 members.

At the time of contact a typical Wendat village comprised between fifty to a hundred longhouses. They usually were enclosed by three rows of sturdy palisades approximately fifteen feet high, made from pine trees. At the time Champlain set foot in Wendat country he found eighteen villages; some eight years later, Recollet brother Gabriel Sagard estimated there were twenty-five. The Jesuits who followed counted twenty villages—fourteen inhabited by the Bear (Attignawantan) Nation (the largest one, accounting for over half the Wendat population), its capital being Ossossane, which means "where the maize tassels wave." The Cord (Attigneenongnahac) Nation had two villages, the Rock (Ahrendaronon) three, and the Deer (Tahontaenrat) one. Brother Sagard described Wendat country as "full of fine hills, open fields, very beautiful broad meadows bearing much excellent hay…" (Heidenreich 1978: 369). Generally, the Wendat "erected their principal villages on slightly elevated ground adjoining a good stream" (Trigger 1969: 15).

Horticulture was the primary means of subsistence of the Wendat in historic times; especially several varieties of maize (which made up sixty-five percent of their diet), beans and squash. They also cultivated sunflowers. The Wendat practiced slash-and-burn agriculture, providing the soil wood ash rich in magnesium, calcium, potassium, and phosphorus, good for maize. Additionally, they hunted deer and bear, and fished for whitefish, lake trout, cisco, walleye, sucker, pike and sturgeon, which could be dried and stored for the winter. Turtles and clams were consumed in greater amounts than meat. The Wendat supplemented their diet by gathering strawberries, raspberries, cranberries, blueberries and wild cherries.

Being middlemen of a regional economic network among the neighboring native nations, the Wendat maintained good diplomatic relations. Trading with neighboring Algonkian-speaking peoples, such as the Ojibway, was their main commercial activity.

Prior to contact, the Wendat had a trading network with neighboring nations. The geographical location of Huronia gave the Wendat access to the only "along-shore canoe trail leading to the north" (Trigger 1969: 24). The Wendat would trade various goods, but mostly maize, as well as tobacco that they grew and also traded with their close neighbors and relatives, the Tionnontati (Petun or Tobacco). Their economy linked them to northern Algonkian groups—including the easternmost Innu and the Ojibway—and to other, Iroquoian-speaking, groups. Trade goods included horticultural products, fishing nets, wampum, pottery and, during the contact period, axes, kettles and knives obtained from the French. In return, they were provided with winter clothing, charms, native copper, fish, and animal skins. Trade with the Tionnontati seems to have been of less importance, the Wendat mainly receiving tobacco and black squirrel skins. It is said to have been the Ahrendaronon who first encountered the French, so according to Wendat law "the trade with the French belonged to them" (Tooker 1967: 25). However, the confederacy provided all Wendat a share in the trade, as well as protection from invaders.

Around April and May, women tilled the ground and planted the "Three Sisters"—maize, bean and squash—a long-established system of agriculture. It is also the women who harvested the crops, gathered wood and wild plants (berries, acorns, walnuts, and grapes, among others), and prepared food for eating. They also gathered and processed hemp and bark for cordage, tumplines, and containers. Pipes were made by men from stone and, mostly, ceramic. Making pottery vessels was a woman’s task. Men were involved in hunting (primarily deer, but also beaver and bear) as well as fishing. Hunting took place in the fall. Men also traded, built longhouses, and could occupy positions of leadership within their village, their nation, and the confederacy. Men safeguarded villages, and would go to war when necessary.

The Wendat held all unused land as common property. Families held as much land as they could cultivate; when a portion was abandoned it reverted to common property. Individuals or nuclear families could own farm plots. Extended families participated in clearing the land and shared in its products. Land could not be owned or sold. Instead, wealth was expressed in the sharing and/or redistribution of products derived from the land. Thus, wealth was measured by the generosity of an individual.

The Wendat traced their ancestry through the maternal blood line. Sons-in-law and grandchildren lived in the same longhouse; in this respect, the Wendat also were matrilocal. This matrilineal bias, evident in the Creation Myth, remained unchanged until the split of the Wendat Confederacy (1649-50). Associated with the matriline is the notion of clan, of which there were eight: Turtle, Wolf, Bear, Beaver, Deer, Hawk, Porcupine and Snake.

The term for mother was reportedly used for mother’s sister (or maternal aunt), in accordance with the matrilineal system. Kinship terms applied to the nations. Thus, the Attignawantan and the Attigneenongnahac called each other "brother" and "sister", perhaps because they were the two largest and oldest nations of the confederacy.

Among the Wendat, youths were free to engage in premarital sex soon after reaching puberty. Theirs was usually a monogamous society, and marriage between individuals of the same clan was strongly discouraged, along with relationships with direct or collateral relatives within three degrees of consanguinity. Companionship could lead to marriage or be informal, with both parties free to have sexual intercourse with others. Parents could advise a young man to marry a particular young woman, whom he would shower with gifts. A couple could get together for some nights, after which they could part, no questions asked. If they decided to stay together, upon the woman’s consent a simple marriage ceremony could occur which involved inviting friends and neighbors to a feast. Marriages were monogamous and couples could separate as they pleased, although divorce was rare when children were involved. When a divorce involving children occurred, they would remain with their mother, although in some instances boys would go with their father and girls with their mother.

Heidenreich (1978: 370) noted that "the matrilineal extended family appears to have been the fundamental social and economic unit…The daily running of the longhouse was done by the women…under the direction of the senior matron [clan mother] who exercised considerable authority over her daughters…". Each family would have its place in the longhouse, and everyone worked in close collaboration. Important decisions were made by the male head, most likely in consultation with family members. Everyone in a given household belonged to the same clan, traced to a common female ancestor.

Because the Wendat had a matrilineal system, a man would leave his belongings to his sister’s children rather to his own. It is upon them that a man would rely in old age, and it was they who displayed the most sorrow after he died. Matrilineal inheritance also applied to chieftainship.

The Wendat had a strongly matrilineal clan system, and clan segments were the basis of social organization, closely intertwined with political organization.

Confederacy meetings were held once a year, in the spring. The Attignawantan and the Attigneenongnahac were the original members the confederacy. The Ahrendaronon joined in 1590 and the Tahontaenrat around 1610. The Ataronchronon Nation, which joined the confederacy much later, "does not appear to have been recognized in the political organization of the…confederacy" (Trigger 1976: 30). The chief of the confederacy was the leader of the largest nation, the Attignawantan. After they died, the names of chiefs were perpetuated in their successors.

The Wendat formed a confederacy of four nations: the Tahontaenrat (Deer Nation), the Attignawantan (Bear Nation), the Attigneenongnahac (Cord Nation), and the Ahrendaronon (Rock Nation). A fifth nation, the Ataronchronon (possibly Marsh Nation), joined the confederacy later. It is likely that the Ataronchronon were a congeries of other clans that "in the latter years of Huronia’s existence, had, in small detachments…occupied the country mainly to the northeast of Mud Lake" (Jones 1908: 447).

The village council was the smallest political unit, comprising two different councils: war and civil affairs. Chiefs were selected (and could be removed) by Clan Mothers based on their oratory skills (powers of persuasion), bravery, leadership, wisdom, generosity and performance as warriors. Alternatively, they could hold office by clan succession. Each clan had a chief, and it is likely that chieftainship belonged to a certain lineage within a clan.

Nations’ councils functioned much like village councils (although somewhat more ceremonial), with the difference that nation meetings took place only if concerns required the opinion of the nation. Chiefs of the villages would consult with one another, and decisions were taken unanimously. For nations’ councils, the civil chiefs " The [village] council could be attended by all the old men of the village…, as well as the civil chiefs of the various clan segments... The clan-segment chiefs acted as spokesmen for their relatives and initiated most discussions." (Heidenreich 1978: 371). The Tahontaenrat didn’t have a designated nation chief, as their village and nation council were the same.

The Wendat recognized four types of crimes: murder, treason, witchcraft, and thievery. Most often, these crimes were punishable by death, or reparations were made by offering gifts to the offended. Jones (1908: 427) stated that "there is no punishment which is inflicted on the guilty, and no criminal who is not sure that his life and property are in no danger, even if he were convicted of three or four murders…It is not that laws or penalties proportioned to the crime are wanting, but the guilty are not the ones who undergo punishment, it is the community that has to atone for the misdeeds of individuals." Wendat society had a strong emphasis on communities’ responsibilities for the well-being of their citizens.

During the first half of the seventeenth century, when fur trading activities with the French were at their peak, conflict grew over economic control. The Haudenosaunee or Five Nations Iroquois Confederacy in what is now upstate New York, having depleted their own beaver population and become increasingly dependent on Dutch and British trade items, ambushed Wendat canoes, exacerbating a long-standing conflict. According to historical sources, the Haudenosaunee were the only people with whom the Wendat were at war.

Ceremonies and spiritual beliefs linked together as a "religion was indissolubly a part of all the things the Huron [Wendat] believed and did… aspects of Huron religion were embraced by the term onderha, which meant the 'prop' or 'foundation' of a country" (Trigger 1976: 75).₁ The Wendat believed that everything surrounding them had a spirit, some more powerful than others. The duality of good and bad, as seen in the Wendat creation myth, was present in every aspects of life. The Wendat would pay respect to all of creation by offering tobacco. Dreams were often seen as spiritual guidance for individuals, and refusal to heed to them could bring misfortune.

Shamans would help people interpret dreams, for they were said to have a powerful spirit helper who helped them see into souls. The Wendat had four types of shamans: 1) those who controlled the weather, 2) those who predicted the future, 3) those who found lost objects, and 4) those who could heal the sick.

The Wendat recognized four types of feasts or ceremonies: 1) enditeuhwa, to express thanksgiving and gratitude, 2) awataerohi, to cure someone of a disease, 3) athataion, farewell, from a dying man to his friends, and 4) atouronta ochien, a singing feast given prior to going to war, taking a new name, or to gain renown. "Feast-givers" were highly respected for their generosity. Food, dancing and singing were a major part of feasts that took place in the winter time, given to strengthen or maintain friendships and to gain status. Important chief might send invitations by messenger to other villages. Refusing to attend a ceremony when personally invited was interpreted as an insult. Another ceremony involved marrying two young virgins to a fishing net, in order to ensure abundance. One of the most important ceremonies for the Wendat was the Feast of the Dead.

Art became more elaborate during historic times. Prior to contact, the Wendat made a wide variety of beautiful clay and stone effigy pipes in such shapes as the blowing face type (with pursed lips), including a skeletalized variety, as well as representations of animals. Carved bone, particularly combs, were also part of the artistic expression of an established tradition shared by most Iroquoian groups at the time of contact. Although pottery was utilitarian, some gifted potters carefully decorated their work. Archaeology has revealed some elaborate ceramic vessels, such as the "high collar" type. The Wendat made a variety of useful objects out of hemp fiber, such as fishing nets made by men; women made scarves, collars and bracelets. Other crafts include corn husk dolls, moccasins, and mats, as well as other items made mainly for trade, and the construction of canoes and longhouses. Wooden and corn husk masks were made for use in traditional medicine and ceremonies.

At the time of contact, the Wendat were said to be remarkably healthy, although their three thousand calorie per day diet could be somewhat deficient in calcium and vitamin C. Generally speaking, the concept of health was broadly perceived to include physical well-being, longevity, mental ease, and good luck. Most diseases were attributed either to natural causes or to witchcraft. Organic diseases were usually cured by herbs, which medicine men had practical knowledge of. In order to prevent diseases, Wendat men would sweat in a small, circular lodge. Afterward they would go swimming, and a feast usually followed. Diseases caused by witchcraft usually required the help of a shaman to expel the supernatural causes. Some shamans sought visions of the cause of illness, while others sought clues their dreams, or fasted and went on a vision quest. It also was widely believed that illnesses were brought about by unfulfilled desires of the subconscious. Dreams could provide solutions, so medicine men and shamans paid special attention to them. Medicine men and shamans were highly respected,

The Wendat believed in the immortality of the soul. When someone died, the corpse was placed in a crouching position and wrapped in its finest outfits, while family and friends painted their faces black as a sign of mourning. Other clans would take over funeral arrangements and bringing them food, and visitors would converge on the longhouse of the deceased. Funerals took place at dawn, beginning with a meal three days after death, and other villages could attend. Bark coffins were put on an eight- to ten-foot scaffold. Upon conclusion of the ceremony, the body was buried. Mourning lasted for ten days, after which the spouse of the deceased could not remarry for an entire year. The Wendat believed that the soul didn’t leave the body immediately after death; rather, it remained present until the Feast of the Dead.

The most important and carefully observed ceremony was the Feast of the Dead, which took place every eight to twelve years. People from all villages converged on the Wendat capital (Ossossane), where a scaffold (to hang the bones) and a common burial pit were prepared for the occasion. Dancing and praying took place, and at the conclusion of the ceremony all the remains were placed in the burial pit. Gifts, weapons, food, and regalia were offered to the deceased for their final journey. The Wendat believed that the souls would leave the bones and travel along the Milky Way (the path of souls) to the land of the dead where Iouskeha and Aataentsic (of the creation myth) resided.

The culture summary was written by Linda Sioui, M.A. Anthropology, in July, 2014 and edited by Leon G. Doyon.

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