article

Effeminate males and changes in the construction of gender in Tonga

Pacific studies • 17 (2) • Published In 1994 • Pages: 39-69

By: James, Kerry.

Abstract

This is a historical account of male effeminacy and transvestitism in Tonga. The traditional term for male effeminacy was FAKAFāFINE and referred to men who did women's work and enjoyed women's company. The modern term FAKALEITĪ which means 'act like a lady' refers to a wide range of behavior, which also includes male prostitutes, homosexuals, transvestites, etc. James reviews early written accounts by travellers and missionaries and finds little mention of FAKAFāFINES. He also interviews elderly informants whose memories, going back to the 1920s, do report on boys who wanted to be with women and showed interest only in women's work. FAKAFāFINES enjoyed gossip, dressed modestly, and married women. Sex between men was, and still is, looked down upon in Tonga and according to some informants was not practiced by FAKAFāFINES. In the sixties, urbanization and commercialization challenged gender conventions and opened new roles for effeminate men. Although some FAKALEITĪ occupy high positions in government and are discrete in their behavior, others hang out at hotels, participate in beauty pageants and cabaret acts, and attract attention. James relates his own observations of FAKALEITĪ in the city of Nuku'alofa and in towns of the Vava'u region. The cabaret acts poke fun at the limiting macho stereotype of Tonga males and critique conventional sexual mores for their strictness and double standards. James attributes the noted increase in male effeminacy to a crisis in Tonga male identity resulting from social changes.

HRAF PubDate

2006

Region

Oceania

Sub Region

Polynesia

Document Type

article

Evaluation

Creator Type

Ethnologist

Document Rating

4: Excellent Secondary Data

5: Excellent Primary Data

Analyst

Ian Skoggard; 2004

Field Date

1981-1982

Coverage Date

1806-1990

Coverage Place

Tonga

Notes

Kerry E. James

Includes bibliographical references (p. 67-69)

LCCN

84643929

LCSH

Tongans